Nishiki-e Collection

Although the Meiji government abolished the privileges bestowed to samurai, the top 7 percent of the population, they maintained their elite status and many took on new roles in the military. Most generals and admirals of the era were former samurai. However, nine years into the Meiji era, the Satsuma Rebellion erupted as a last gasp of disenfranchised samurai trying to restore their way of life. The short-lived insurrection was portrayed by several artists in nishiki-e, including Toshinobu.

This print by Toshinobu, created less than a year after the Satsuma Rebellion, highlights some of the leaders from the conflict including the posthumous appearance of Saigō Takamori (1827–1877). Takamori had led the rebelling faction and his death ended the conflict. Yet he is honorably seated here with his Satsuma dog, Tsun, beside him—a clear sign of his continued hero status which ultimately led to his pardoning in 1889.

This nishiki-e depicts a mobilization of troops to attack Mukden (modern day Shenyang, China) that never happened due to Japan and China beginning peace negotiations to end the First Sino-Japanese War. Gekkō, like most woodblock print artists, remained at home in Japan and likely based his work on written reports, photographs, or imagination. Unsurprisingly, inadequate information and the haste driving the production process occasionally led woodblock artists to make factual errors in their work. In some circumstances, competition among print publishers became so intense that artists were asked to produce designs in anticipation of battles, which led to depictions of engagements that never actually occurred.

While a successful composition in its own right, this three sheet (triptych) is actually the central third of a nine sheet (enneaptych) artwork. The right most three sheet triptych is titled "Surprise Attack: The Capture of Pyongyang" and can be seen above. The left most three sheet triptych is not held at Hoover, but is titled "Chastisement by the Righteous Army: The Attack on Pyongyang" according to the St. Louis Art Museum, which holds a copy of the entire enneaptych. Nine sheet nishiki-e are rather unusual, thought they would be created for important events. This one features vignettes from the Battle of Pyongyang (Sept. 15-16, 1894). As the first large-scale land battle, it was a catalyst for expelling the Chinese Qing Army from the Korean peninsula. Although Toshihide correctly illustrated the Japanese Army’s flag, uniform, and weapons, his depiction of the Qing Army lacks historical accuracy. Troops wear overly colorful costumes, private soldiers have officer’s hats on, and the Chinese flags bear singular and incorrect characters. Toshihide, like most woodblock print artists, remained at home in Japan and followed an established pattern of stereotyping the Chinese.

War nishiki-e artists produced prints that functioned like posters for new and traditional theatrical performances, such as this one. Artist Utagawa Kunisada III (1848–1920), also known as Kunimasa IV, Kōchōrō, and Hōsai, created a few works for a number of plays and performances. This one is for a kyōgen (traditional Japanese comic theater) performance and is centered on the Japanese victory at Anseongcheon, Korea, during the First Sino-Japanese War. Just as with details of battles on the front lines, the depictions of soldiers and equipment in this print are not very accurate. Kunisada illustrated actor Nakamura Shikan IV (1831–1899) in the role of Lieutenant Colonel Fukushima Yasumasa in military court dress (at left), something that would never have been worn in combat. He also mistakenly included an outdated Japanese military flag and a Chinese private soldier wearing an officer’s hat.

The Battle of Asan (or Seonghwan) in Korea was the first major land battle of the First Sino-Japanese War. In fact, the battle, which took place on July 28-29, preceded the official declaration of war on August 1, 1894. At center are Japanese military leaders in modern military uniforms and their troops at right, meanwhile the Korean government officials are squeezed into the left side. The order in which they stand is likely to be historically inaccurate, as the Japanese Minister to Korea and China, Ōtori Keisuke (left most figure wearing a black jacket), stands directly in front of the Korean delegation which was opposite of international protocols at the time. Additionally, the military flag depicted is outdated, without gold rims or purple tassels on three sides, instead of the official army flag of the standing infantry unit. These inaccuracies are likely due to the artist's reliance on news reports and anecdotes about the event, rather than having witnessed it. The scene takes place in Seoul, as the Korean King's Messenger Lee Yuyong welcomes the victorious Japanese. Individuals identified in cartouches in the print include: Nagaoka Gaishi 長岡 外史 (1858–1933), Major General Ōshima Yoshimasa 大島 義昌 (1850–1926), Ōtori Keisuke 大鳥圭介 (1833–1911), Lee Yuyong 李允用 이윤용 (1856–1926), and Jeong Gyeongwon 鄭敬源 정경원 (?).

Captain Matsuzaki Naoomi (1854–94) was from Kumamoto on Kyushu and became one of the first causalities whose deaths were immortalized in hero stories from the First Sino-Japanese War. As Japanese troops headed from Seoul to Asan in order to route the Chinese from Korea, ground troops first had to cross the deep Anson River. It’s said that Captain Matsuzaki heroically led his men across the river on July 29, 1894, to attack the enemy. As they approached the shore, the captain was shot through the leg during an ambush but was not deterred and urged his men forward, only to suffer a second shot to his head. Reports at the time claimed that after the second shot he called out “I’ve been hit!” before dying bravely.

This nishiki-e appears to be of poorer quality than the triptychs in the collection. While the line work shows mastery of design, the color application of the subsequent color woodblocks is rather poor and hastily applied. This could be understandable, as the scene depicted is of Captain Matsuzaki (松崎大尉) leading a charge at the Battle of Seonghwan (per the print, the Battle of Anjōgawa, aka Anseongcheon) which was the first major land battle of the war. However, the print is dated October 1894 making it more likely that this was just a poorer quality print churned out for the masses.

On September 17, 1894, the first great naval battle of the Sino-Japanese War was fought in the Yellow Sea, near the islands of Haiyang and Zhangzi, just outside of the mouth of the Yalu River. All of these geographic locations have been used in reference to the battle, most commonly it is known as the Battle of the Yellow Sea (aka Battle of Yalu River, Battle of Dagu Mountain, or Battle of Haiyang Island).

This triptych at first glance is unusual as the title cartouche appears on the right side of the left-most sheet (rather than the right-most sheet). But this is not an artistic anomaly, instead the print was originally a hexaptych (a six sheet image) that has lost one sheet on the right and two on the left side. Nevertheless, the print retains its impactful message of Japanese naval superiority over the Chinese Beiyang Fleet.

Rather than important people, this print uses cartouches to identify the vessels in the battle. From right to left they include: Laiyuan 来遠號 (Chinese); Hiei 比叡號; Zhiyuan 致遠號 (Chinese); Chaoyong 超勇号 (Chinese); Dingyuan テヱヱン号 (Chinese); Jiyuan 濟遠号 (Chinese); Takachiho高千穂號. At bottom right: A Chinese torpedo boat 支那水雷艇

Kobayashi Kiyochika (1847–1915) is considered by many to be the most skilled nishiki-e artists of the First Sino-Japanese War. Over the brief 10-month period of the conflict Kiyochika is reported to have created more than seventy triptychs expertly ranging from the serene to the brutal. This ability to balance beauty with the grotesque of war shines in this print where the raging battle in the distance is framed by a delicate rainbow above and the quiet of freshly fallen snow below. The calm Japanese military officers, with Gerenal Nozu Michitsura (1840–1908) at center examining a map, listen to two local Chinese informants—portrayed in humbled positions on their knees and styled with stereotypically dated attire and hair queues. A sober atmosphere adds elegance to the moment, which seems at odds with what one would expect in a military council actively in the late stages of its campaign to take the treaty port of Yingkou—which ended in victory on March 4, 1895.

The story of Captain Higuchi, whether completely true or embellished, epitomizes the war propaganda trope of the compassionate conqueror. It uniquely symbolized for the Japanese public the notion that not only were their nation’s efforts in the war honorable but also necessary for the safeguarding of future generations in the region. Such a message aligned well with Japanese bushidō values, and Higuchi’s actions were popularized in art, songs and writings. The narrative block in the upper right corner of this print tells the tale as follows: After having destroyed and conquered the enemy at Motianling [Fort], and while pushing forward towards the "Hundred-Foot-Cliff," the battalion commander of the Sixth Brigade, Captain Higuchi, found an abandoned Chinese infant crying on the ground. Taking pity on the child and worried that it might freeze to death, he picked up the child and continued to advance. Unexpectedly, Higuchi ran into the enemy and realized that he had to fight. He then embraced the child with his left arm and raised his sword with his right arm, leading his men. Afterwards he gave the child to a Chinese prisoner who returned it to the parents. In general, [these actions] exemplify the spirit of our brave and virtuous soldiers. [translation courtesy of The Lavenberg Collection of Japanese Prints]

The woodblock print master Kobayashi Kiyochika under a different pen name (Shinsei) ventured into satire caricatures, using themes from the Sino-Japanese War. One of his successful series, Nippon banzai hyakusen hyakushō (Banzai Japan 100 selections 100 laughs) depicts a variety of political and military scenes. Kiyochika partnered with satire writer Nishimori Takeki (1861–1913), who signed “Koppi Dōjin” as a pseudonym and would explain the pro-Japanese scenes with puns.

This print title Shindai kagiri is a double entendre between a” foreclosure” and “as long as Qing lasts.” Kiyochika presented a visual riddle to accompany Nishimori’s text; A Chinese merchant is calling out for a fire sale of traditional Chinese goods, from locks named Jiuliancheng to a vase labeled Ryojun (Port Arthur) to two customers, presumably a Japanese military officer and a British man. The merchant claims the store Yamato, referring to Japan, already acquired most items, but he still has left-over to sell. The catch here is the goods sold are all traditional Chinese items, suggesting that China was saddled with its outdated ways.

The Shanghai Incident gave Japan the war heroes posthumously deified as Bakudan san’yūshi (literally “exploding bomb three heroes”). The “Three Heroes of Shanghai” were twenty-one-year-old army sappers (combat engineers) from Kyushu named Kitagawa Susumu, Eshita Takeji, and Sakue Inosuke. These men, according to modern Japanese lore, sacrificed themselves for the greater good of the nation by making a suicide charge against an enemy stronghold near Miaohang village, north of Shanghai’s International Settlement, on February 22, 1932. Their reported heroism enabled Japan’s Twenty-Fourth Mixed Brigade to overrun the defending Chinese Nineteenth Route Army.

The Bakudan san’yūshi narrative quickly featured prominently in school lessons as it was heavily promoted by the Ministry of War. All the while, the Japanese public remained unaware that the story was a fabrication. Today it is acknowledged that the “Three Heroes of Shanghai” ingloriously blew themselves to pieces by accident on that Chinese battlefield.